Teaching-Learning Models 1

1. Principles of teaching and learning

1) Principle of individualization: individualized instruction systems, individually prescribed instruction, aptitude-treatment interaction, programmed learning, and the like fall under this.
2) Principle of spontaneity: the project method, problem-solving learning, discovery learning, programmed learning, and so on presuppose the learner's spontaneity.
3) Principle of intuition: helping students recognize a concept by directly presenting concrete objects or letting them experience them.
4) Principle of purpose: learning is purposeful.
5) Principle of integration: integration between concepts.
6) Principle of socialization: making use of cooperative learning.

2. Carroll's model of school learning

- Analyzes the variables that occur in school learning into five, two of which belong to the teacher and three to the learner.
- Teacher variables: learning opportunity and time, and quality of instruction; the more learning opportunities and the higher the quality of instruction, the more school learning is achieved.
- Learner variables: perseverance, aptitude, and ability to understand instruction; perseverance is how long one can sustain learning. Aptitude is the degree of aptitude an individual student has, and ability to understand instruction is the degree to which a student can understand the lesson. These too: the higher and the more suitable they are, the shorter the time needed for learning.

3. Bloom's mastery learning model; building on premises similar to Carroll's model, it proposes assessment according to the instructional process.
- Before the lesson: confirming instructional objectives and, through diagnostic assessment, checking and discriminating individual differences (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor characteristics) and confirming the degree of prior learning.
- During the lesson: presenting learning objectives and managing instructional activities.
- After the lesson: immediately after the lesson, conducting formative assessment to enhance learners' intrinsic motivation and to check whether learning has failed. After classifying learners through formative assessment, supplementary and advanced learning is carried out. Afterward, summative assessment is conducted (placing learners and checking whether the program has produced results).

4. Gagne

1) The five domains of learning
- Verbal information: propositional knowledge, facts, principles
- Intellectual skills: procedural knowledge, knowledge of methods
- Cognitive strategies: metacognition
- Attitudes: an individual's internal tendencies
- Motor skills

2) Instructional and teaching events
- Gaining attention -> presenting prior knowledge -> presenting objectives -> presenting materials -> providing learning guidance -> performance -> feedback -> assessment -> retention and transfer, and previewing the next lesson

3) External factors
- Principle of reinforcement
- Principle of contiguity: temporal contiguity
- Principle of repetition

4) Internal factors
- The degree and presence of prior learning
- The degree of learning motivation
- Self-concept