1. Line organization and staff organization
1) Line organization: an organization with a clearly established vertical chain of command; the military is a representative example
- The limits of authority and responsibility are clear, work efficiency can be enhanced, and being composed of a single agency, policy decisions can be made quickly. Control is strong and work processing is simple
- There are problems handling complex and excessive work, the leader's subjective and arbitrary decisions are possible, and it's a rigid organization
2) Staff organization: other organizations that smoothly drive the functions of the line organization.
- The head's span of control can expand, and professional knowledge and experience can be utilized. Organizational flexibility also becomes relatively higher
- The organization becomes complex, and expenditure for running the organization increases. There's also a risk of buck-passing between line and staff.
2. Climate (Halpin & Croft)
1) Open: a lively, vibrant organization that moves toward organizational goals and satisfies members' social needs
2) Autonomous climate: a climate where the principal creates an atmosphere for teachers to set up their own interaction structures and seek ways to satisfy teachers' social needs
3) Familiar climate: a climate where a friendly attitude forms between principal and teachers and is well satisfied, but group activity for achieving organizational aims is lacking
4) Controlled climate: a climate that emphasizes task performance and neglects satisfying teachers' social needs
5) Paternal climate: a climate where the principal's interfering behavior lacks fairness and emphasizes only tasks
6) Closed climate: the climate with the lowest thrust and morale
3. Climate (Hoy & Miskel)
1) Open climate: cooperation and respect occur within teachers and between teachers and principal; high principal support and low directiveness, low restrictive behavior, high professional relations among teachers, high intimacy, low disengaged behavior
2) Closed climate: low principal support, high directive behavior, high restrictive behavior, and teachers' low professional relations, low intimacy, high disengaged behavior
3) Engaged climate: the principal has an ineffective control style but teachers show high professional performance
4) Disengaged/non-engaged climate: the principal is open but teachers can't accept the principal, and respect among fellow teachers is lacking
4. Job enrichment
- As a motivation strategy for teachers, increasing responsibility in job performance considering teachers' individual differences, and granting authority and discretion so they gain a sense of challenge, interest, and psychological reward.
- Career-ladder programs; the master-teacher system is an example, performing roles beyond directly teaching students — coaching lessons at the school/education-office level, developing and disseminating curriculum and teaching-learning evaluation methods, and supporting and guiding new teachers.
5. Clinical supervision and instructional supervision: supervision aimed at improving instruction
6. In-school autonomous supervision: supervision conducted within a single school for improving educational activities
- Guidance and advisory activities based on mutual understanding and cooperation among staff.
7. Microteaching: a scaled-down form of clinical supervision; supervision that goes through conferences, lesson observation, and feedback for improving teachers' teaching skills and continuous professional growth
- Proceeds in the order of pre-conference - lesson observation - feedback, consulting on everything from start to finish.
- Since it's done by the teacher's need, it's teacher-centered supervision, limited to the parts the teacher treats as problems.
8. Peer supervision: teachers observe each other's lessons and provide feedback on the results.
- Informal, but effective when colleagues prefer cooperation; convergent lessons, lesson study, and research-centered peer supervision are possible.
- Human resources can be maximally utilized, and community formation through active peer relationships is possible. It has the advantage that supervision is possible even without professional knowledge of supervision. Forming a cooperative organizational climate is also possible.
9. Self-supervision: supervising oneself to improve teaching skills.
- Based on teacher autonomy, pursuing one's own professional growth and development and engaging in self-reflection
- Includes recording and analyzing one's own lessons, surveying students' opinions, feedback from fellow teachers, professional development through research or training, taking graduate courses, etc.
10. Human-resource supervision: supervision pursuing happy teachers, emphasizing teachers' inner satisfaction.
11. Selective supervision: individualized supervision for teachers, considering individual differences.
12. Informal supervision: supervision where the principal or vice-principal advises teachers through routine learning rounds or brief class observations. It has a strongly informal character, and in the field teachers sometimes show resistance.
13. Consulting supervision: an activity providing professional, technical advice and opinions on areas related to school education, including school management, in a horizontal relationship between the supervisor and teacher that guarantees the teacher's voluntariness.
- Based on the teacher's voluntary request, advice is provided for improving school education, developing expertise related to teaching-learning, problem-solving, conducting training, etc.
- Consulting ends right after the conclusion is proposed, and is carried out by a consulting expert.
- Its principles include expertise, independence, advisory nature, temporariness, educational nature, and voluntariness.
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